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The Fountain of Life (Fons Vitae) (excerpt), by Solomon Ibn Gabirol, tr. by Harry E. Wedeck [1962], at sacred-texts.com
Pupil: It seems quite necessary to prove and demonstrate by necessary and universal proofs that the forms that are in the substance that supports the categories are the object of the action of the simple substance and stem from them.
Master: Your request is a good one: it is in fact very necessary. Here are the proofs that demonstrate that the forms borne by the corporeal substance are the object of the action of the simple and spiritual substances and that they stem from them.
The action of every simple substance is simple. Now the actions that are in the substance that supports the categories are simple. Therefore the actions that are in the substance that supports the categories are the object of the action of the simple substance.
The energies, the forms, and the motions that are in the corporeal substance are more simple and more subtle than the corporeal substance. Now all that is more simple and more subtle than the corporeal substance submits to the domain of the simple substance. Therefore the energies, the forms, and the motions that are in the corporeal substance submit to the domain of the simple substance.
Next, I add to this conclusion the following proposition: All that is in the nature of the simple substance must be either of the essence of the simple substance
or one of its accidents. Therefore the energies, the forms, and the motions that are in the corporeal substance are either of the essence of the simple substance or of the number of accidents. But they are not of the essence of the simple substance because they are not substances. Therefore they are of the number of its accidents.
The compound substance receives the forms. Now all that receives the forms receives them from the agent that produces them in it. Therefore the compound substance receives the forms of the agent that produces them in it. Then I add to this conclusion this proposition: The simple substance acts upon the compound substance. Therefore the compound substance receives the forms of the simple substance.
When a thing receives something from another thing, the thing received in that which receives is the object of the action of that which gives. Therefore the forms that the compound substance receives are the object of the action of the simple substance. Now everything that in a thing is the object of the action of another thing exists in the causative agent. Therefore the forms that the compound substance receives exist in the causative agent. Now the causative agent is the simple substance. Therefore the forms that the compound substance receives exist in the simple substance.
The forms that are borne by the corporeal substance are actions. Now every action comes from that which acts on the forms that are borne. Therefore the forms that are borne by the corporeal substance do not come from the substance that supports the categories. Similarly I add to this conclusion the following proposition: Everything that does not come from something comes from its contrary. Therefore the form that is
borne by the corporeal substance comes from its contrary. Next, I add to this proposition: The simple substance is opposed to the compound substance. Therefore the forms borne by the corporeal substance come from the simple substance.
If the compound substance does not take from the simple substance the motions, energies, and figures, the simple substance either does not exist, or does not act. But the simple substance exists and acts. Therefore the compound substance takes from the simple substance the figures, energies, and motions.
The figures, energies, and motions that are in the compound substance are received necessarily either from the First Author, or from the essence of the substance that possesses them, or from another substance intermediary between them.
If they were received from the essence of the First Author, it would necessarily follow that the First Author and the substance that supports the categories had something in common, for that which is in the essence of the First Author would be united with the essence of the substance. Furthermore, it would be necessary that there should be multiplicity in the essence of the First Author on account of the multiplicity of the figures, energies, and motions. Now both hypotheses are impossible. Therefore the figures, energies, and motions that are in the substance that supports the categories are not received from the essence of the First Author.
If they were received from the essence of the substance that possesses them, it would be necessary that the substance should at the same time cause the form and receive it, and it would be necessary that it should act in so far as it receives or that it should not act in so far as it receives. If it acted in so far as it received, one and the same thing would act and
be the object of the action at the same time: which is impossible. If it did not act in so far as it receives, the whole would not receive the form. But it is a substance entirely formed. Therefore it is impossible that it should not act in so far as it is the object of action. If the substance does not act in so far as it is the object of action, and if the agent is stronger than the object of the action, it is necessary, if the substance is one, that the substance be in one way stronger than itself and in another way weaker than itself. If it is not one, and if it acts partly and is partly passive, it is necessary that the passive part should be without form. But the substance in its entirety is formed. It is therefore formed and not formed: which is inadmissible.
In anything composed of two things, each of them can exist by itself. Now the body is composed of substance and form. Therefore the form can exist by itself without the corporeal substance. Similarly I assert: The form can exist by itself without the corporeal substance. Now the form does not exist without a support. Therefore the form is in a support that is not the corporeal substance. Next I add to this proposition: Apart from the corporeal substance, there is no other support except the simple substance. Therefore the form exists in the simple substance.
Every action takes place in the spiritual and every reception in the corporeal. Now if the substance acted in so far as being an object of the action, it would be spiritual and corporeal at the same time. And if it acted partly and was partly the object of the action, it would be partly spiritual and partly corporeal. But the substance that supports the categories in its entirety is corporeal. Therefore there is nothing in it that acts.
If the corporeal substance receives the forms, that
are supported in it, from another substance different from itself, it is necessary that this substance should be superior to it. Now the simple substance is superior to the compound substance. Therefore the corporeal substance receives the forms that it has from the simple substance.
The simple substances are perceived only in bodies. Now the forms that are in the compound substance are perceived in bodies. Therefore the forms that are in the compound substance come from the forms of the simple substances.
The form that is perceived by the senses in the compound substance fulfils its being. Now all that fulfils the being of a substance is a substance. Therefore the form that is perceived by the senses in the compound substance is a substance.
The simple substance is divided into matter and form, according to the division of genus into species. Now whenever a thing is divided as the genus is divided into species, the species of this thing receive equally the name and the definition of the genus. Therefore the species of the simple substance receive equally the name and the definition of the genus. To this proposition I add the following one: Matter and form are species of the simple substance. Therefore matter and form receive equally the name and the definition of the simple substance. Now the simple substance receives the name and the definition of the substance. Therefore matter and form receive equally the name and the definition of the substance.
Every effect is composed in relation to its cause. And if the corporeal forms are the effects of spiritual forms, it is necessary that they should be compound. Now they are compound. Therefore they are the effects of spiritual forms.
Whatever was caused is in act in itself, and is in potentiality in the cause. If the forms of the compound substance are effects, it is necessary that they should be in themselves in act and in potentiality in their cause. Now they are effects in act. They are therefore in potentiality in their cause.
The corporeal forms diffused in the substance are united with them. Now a thing, once it is united, has not the same virtue and the same perfection as the simple form by itself. Therefore the form that is diffused in the substance has not a virtue and a perfection so great as the simple form by itself.
Next I take this proposition and I assert: Everything that is not so good as a thing in virtue and perfection is similar to it. Therefore the form diffused in the substance is similar to the simple form by itself.
Then I take this proposition and I add: Everything that is similar to a thing is its reproduction. Therefore the forms diffused in the substance are the reproduction of spiritual forms. Then I add to this proposition: Everything that is the reproduction of a thing is its image or its portrait. Therefore the form that is diffused in the substance is the image or the portrait of the spiritual form.
The forms are simple. Now the simple is anterior to the compound. Therefore the forms are anterior to that which is composed of them.
Every form possessed by matter differs in clarity and in perfection according to the clarity and the perfection of the matter that receives it. Now whenever a thing differs from another thing, the quality of its form depends on the thing from which it differs. Therefore the spiritual form that the matter has depends on the matter from which it differs.
To this proposition I add the following one: Whenever the form of a thing depends on another thing, this form is not a form by itself. Therefore the spiritual form that the matter has is not a form by itself.
Then, after this, I assert: Everything that is not in something by itself is the object of the action of a thing that is in something by itself. Therefore the form that the matter has is the object of the action of a thing that is in another thing a form by itself.
Every spiritual substance has a form and every spiritual substance is subtle. Now the form of every subtle thing emanates from this thing. Therefore the form of the spiritual substance emanates from this substance. Then, after this, I assert: The form of the spiritual substance emanates from this substance. Now whenever the form of a thing emanates from this thing, this form is reflected by the contrary thing that receives it. Therefore the form of the spiritual substance is reflected by the contrary thing that receives it.
To this conclusion I add: Now every form reflected by the contrary thing that receives it penetrates the thing that receives it and envelops it, if its substance is a subtle substance. Therefore the form of the spiritual substance penetrates and envelops the substance with categories. To this proposition I add next: The form of the spiritual substance penetrates and envelops the substance supporting the categories. Now the form borne by the substance supporting the categories penetrates and envelops this substance. Therefore the form borne by the substance supporting the categories is the form itself of the spiritual substance.
Every corporeal substance has a limited essence. Now everything that has a limited essence cannot extend in every place. Therefore the essence of the corporeal substance cannot extend in every place.
[paragraph continues] Then, inversely: The spiritual substance has an unlimited essence because it is neither quantitative nor finite. Now when a thing has an unlimited essence, the essence extends and exists in every place. Therefore the essence of the spiritual substance extends and exists in every place.
Next, I take this conclusion as a premise and I assert: Now everything that extends, flows and does not remain motionless. Therefore the spiritual substance flows and does not remain motionless. Then I assert: The spiritual substance flows and does not remain motionless. Now whenever a thing flows aril does not remain motionless, the form ceases when it meets a body that obstructs it and that reflects the form and the action of this thing: as the light of the sun, that is reflected by the body. Therefore the form of the spiritual substance ceases and is reflected by the body. Then I add this proposition: The form borne by the corporeal substance ceases in it and is reflected by it. Therefore the form borne by the corporeal substance is the form itself that proceeds from the spiritual substance.
Everything that is reflected from one thing in another has the property of extending on the surface of the thing where it is reflected and of enveloping it to the point of invisibility. Now the form borne by the compound substance extends on the surface of the substance and envelops it to the point of invisibility. Therefore the form borne by the compound substance is the reflection in it of a substance other than it. Then I add to this proposition: Everything that is in a thing the reflection of a thing other than itself exists in that of which it is the reflection. Therefore the form borne by the compound substance exists in the substance of which it is the reflection.
All the designs and the figures that appear in the
compound substance are impressed therein by its cause. Now the simple substance is the cause of the compound substance. Therefore all the designs and the figures that appear in the compound substance are impressed therein by the simple substance. Then to this proposition I add the following one: All that is impressed by one thing in another thing exists in the thing that impresses it. Therefore all the designs and the figures that appear in the compound substance exist in that which impresses them. Then I add this proposition: The simple substance impresses the designs and the figures. Therefore all the designs and the figures that appear in the compound substance exist in the simple substance.
The figures, the colors, and the designs that appear in the particular compounds come from an active substance. The substance that has the form of the elements is not active. Therefore the figures, the colors, and the designs that appear in the particular compounds do not come from the substance that has the form of the elements. They come therefore from some simple substance. These actions come from the essence of the simple substance or they do not. If they do not come from its essence, it is possible that they do not come from its action. But it is impossible that they do not come from its action. Therefore it is impossible that they do not come from its essence. And if they come from its essence, it is necessary that they should be in its essence. The same assertion must be made in regard to the universal figures and designs that appear in the compound substance, namely that they exist in the essence of the substance that impresses them.
One is the root of the multiple. The simple substance is one. Therefore the simple substance is the
root of the multiple. The forms that are borne by the compound substance are a multitude. Therefore the simple substance is the root of the forms that are borne by the compound substances.
The multiple is an aggregate of units: the units in the aggregate are divided into units as the whole is divided into parts. And whenever a thing is divided into another, the nature of the whole exists in each of its parts. Now the units are parts of the multiple. Therefore the nature of the multiple exists in each of the units.
Now the forms that are borne by the compound substance are a multitude. Therefore the forms that are in the compound substance exist in a single form. But the form of the simple substance is one. Therefore the forms that are in the compound substance exist in the form of the simple substance.
The simple substance resembles unity more than the compound substance does. Now the form that is in the compound substance resembles unity more than the compound substance does. Therefore the simple substance resembles the form that is in the compound substance, since both substances resemble unity more.
Now all similar things are so in genus, species, accident, or quality. But the form is not of the same genus or of the same species as the simple substance, and the simple substance has no accident in its essence. Therefore their similarity does not come from that source. They are therefore similar in relation to the action.
Quantity and quality are two forms. Now every form comes from form. Therefore quantity and quality do not come from the substance that possesses them. Similarly, quantity and quality come from form. Now, apart from the compound substance and the
simple substance, there is no form. Therefore quantity and quality come from the simple substance.
Quantity is multitude. Now multitude is composed of units. Therefore quantity is composed of units. Now units are composed of simple unity. Therefore quantity is composed of simple unity. Now simple unity is in the simple substance. Therefore quantity is composed of the unity of the simple substance. The unity in the simple substance is a simple accident. Now the compound accident is composed of the simple accident. Therefore the compound accident is composed of the unity of the simple substance.
Similarly: Quantity is composed of units. Now compound units are a compound accident. Therefore quantity is a compound accident. To this proposition I add the following one: The compound accident is composed of the unit of the simple substance. Therefore quantity is composed of the unit of the simple substance.
I assert that the properties and the impressions of the simple substance exist in the form that is borne by the compound substance. And here is the proof.
The simple substance is perceived by the senses in the body. Similarly, form is perceived by the senses in the body. A simple substance is one simple being in itself. Similarly, form is a simple unit in itself. The simple substance is a form for the compound substance. Similarly, form is a form for the compound substance. The simple substance completes that of which it is the form. Similarly, the form completes that of which it is the form. The simple substance penetrates the compound substance. Similarly, the form penetrates the compound substance. The simple substance envelops the compound substance.
[paragraph continues] Similarly with the form. The simple substance distinguishes its subject from another subject. Similarly the form distinguishes the compound substance from another substance. The simple substance gathers together the parts of its subject. Similarly the form gathers together the compound substance. The simple substance is not in place. Similarly with the form. The simple substance is mobile and active. Similarly with the form.
Next, I take this proposition as a premise and I assert that the properties and the impressions of the simple substance exist in the form that is borne by the compound substance. Now wherever the properties of the simple substance exist, this impression is due to the simple substance. Therefore the form that is in the compound substance is impressed by the simple substance.
Similarly, in another way. If the properties and the impressions of the simple substance are in the form that is borne by the compound substance, it is necessary that the form that is borne by the compound substance should impress the properties in the same way as the simple substance does. Similarly, we shall prepare propositions about each property of a simple substance and about the properties of form, and we shall add a proof that concludes that the form comes from the impression of the simple substance. The number of these proofs will depend therefore on the number of the properties from which the propositions arise.
When two substances of contrary form unite, there springs from their union a form different from the proper forms of these substances. The truth of this proposition is evident to the senses: but to the intelligence it will appear in the following manner.
I assert that the forms of two united substances are two. The nature of the two differs from the nature of the one. Therefore the nature of the two forms of the two united substances differs from the nature of each of them. Similarly, in another way. Whenever two contrary things unite, they become some kind of one. Now the two differ from the one. Therefore whenever two things unite they become something other than one of them. Next I add to this conclusion the following proposition: Two forms unite. Therefore when two forms unite, they become something other than each of them. Similarly in another way. The form that springs from the union of two forms must be either one of them or neither the one nor the other. Now it is impossible that it should be one of them because it is impossible that the form should perish. Therefore it is a form that differs from each of them and it is not one of them.
Since the proposition is true that declares that from the union of two substances contrary in form there arises a form that differs from the form of each of them, let us verify the proposition that declares that the simple substance unites with the compound substance. The truth of this proposition is evident to the senses, for we see the impressions of nature and of the soul in the substance that they compose: thus the union and the conjunction of these substances are verified. As for the proof for the intelligence, that is demonstrated in the following manner.
The simple substance is of the same genus as the compound substance. Now everything that is of the same genus unites. Therefore the simple substance and the compound substance unite. Similarly with another method of reasoning. The simple substance acts. Now every agent unites with the thing that receives its action. Therefore every simple substance
unites with the thing that receives its action. Then I take this proposition as a premise and I add: Now the compound substance receives the action of the simple substance. Therefore every simple substance unites with the compound substance. Similarly with another method of reasoning. The form of the simple substance emanates necessarily. Now all that emanates necessarily unites with the thing that is before it. Therefore the form of the simple substance unites with the thing that is before it. I take this proposition as a premise and I add the following one: The compound substance is opposite the simple substance. Therefore the form of the simple substance unites with the compound substance. Similarly with another method of reasoning. The simple substance contains the compound substance. Now everything that contains another thing is united with that which it contains. Therefore the simple substance is united with the compound substance. Similarly with another method of reasoning. The simple substance is of unlimited essence. Now whenever a thing is of unlimited essence, its essence is extended. Therefore the essence of the simple substance is extended. And to this conclusion I add: Whenever the essence of a thing is extended, this essence is everywhere. Therefore the essence of the simple substance is everywhere. Now everything whose essence is everywhere is united with everything that the place comprehends. Therefore the essence of the simple substance is united with everything that the place comprehends. Now the compound substance is everything that the place comprehends. Therefore the essence of the simple substance is united with the essence of the compound substance. Similarly with another method of reasoning. The simple substance wants that which it has in potentiality to pass into act. Whenever a thing wants that which
it has in potentiality to pass into act, its effect appears in a subject. Therefore the effect of the simple substance appears in a subject. Now whenever the effect of a thing appears in a subject, this thing unites with this subject. Therefore the simple substance unites with the subject of its action. But the compound substance is the subject of its action. Therefore the simple substance unites with the compound substance.
And since the proposition that asserts that the simple substance and the compound substance are united is certain, I take it as a premise and I add to it this proposition: Whenever two things unite, there springs from their union a form that differs from the form of each of them. This is the proposition that we have previously verified. Therefore from the union of the simple substance and the compound substance there springs a form that differs from the form of each of them. Then I add to this proposition the following one: The figures, energies, and motions that are in the compound substance are forms that differ from the form of the essence of the simple substance and from the form of the essence of the compound substance, as it was previously. Therefore from the union of the simple substance and the compound substance there spring the figures, energies, and motions that are in the compound substance.
The forms that are in the compound substance pass into action and are perceived by the senses. Now whenever a simple substance unites with the compound substance, the forms that the intelligence seized in it pass from potentiality into act and are perceived by the senses. Therefore the forms that are in the compound substance pass into act and are perceived by the senses when the simple substance unites with the compound substance.
Every corporeal substance is sensible. Now all the impressions that are in a sensible thing are sensible. Therefore all the impressions that are in a corporeal substance are sensible.
Similarly: The impressions of the simple substance are in the corporeal substance. Now all the impressions that are in the corporeal substance are sensible. Therefore all the impressions of the simple substance in the compound substance are sensible. Then I convert this proposition and I obtain the following one: All that is sensible in the corporeal substance is the impression of the simple substance.
All the forms that are in the corporeal substance are sensible. Now all that is sensible in the corporeal substance is the impression of the simple substance. Therefore all the forms that are in the compound substance are the impressions of the simple substance.
The compound substance is an effect. Now all the forms that appear in an effect are impressed therein by its cause. Therefore all the forms and the impressions that appear in the compound substance are impressed therein by its cause. The simple substance is the cause of the compound substance. Therefore all the forms and the impressions that appear in the compound substance are impressed therein by the simple substance.
The form of every effect is in the cause of this effect. Now the simple substances are the causes of the compound substances. Therefore the forms of the compound substances are in the simple substances.
The simple substance is the active cause of the compound substance. Now all that is an active cause for a thing impresses in it that which is in its essence. Therefore the simple substance impresses in the compound substance that which is in its essence. Then I
take this proposition as a premise and I assert: The simple substance impresses in the compound substance that which is in its essence. Now the simple substance impresses in the compound substance the figures, energies, and motions. Therefore the figures, energies, and motions are in the simple substance.
Motion is an impression of the soul. Now motion is in the compound substance. Therefore the impression of the soul is in the compound substance.
The imperfect is created by the perfect. Now the imperfect compound substance comes from the simple substance. Therefore the compound substance is created by the simple substance.
The soul moves. Now the mobile is the cause of that which is at rest. Therefore the soul is the cause of that which is at rest. The compound substance is at rest. Therefore the soul is the cause of the compound substance. The compound substance and the forms that are borne by it are together. Therefore the soul is the cause at the same time of the compound substance and of the form that subsists in it.
Every corporeal substance is receptive only and compound only, while the spiritual substance is receptive and active, simple in one sense and compound in another sense. Now that which is active and receptive, simple and compound, receives numerous forms. And if a thing receives numerous forms, these numerous forms are in it potentially. There are therefore in the simple substance numerous forms in potentiality. Now all that in which there are numerous forms in potentiality causes these forms to pass from potentiality into act. Therefore the simple substance causes the forms that are in it in potentiality to pass into act.
It is therefore necessary that every cause should impress the figures and its forms in its effect. Now
that which receives an impression never equals in force and perfection that which gives it. It is therefore necessary that the cause should be equipped with more figures and forms than its effect. Now the simple substance is the cause of the compound substance. It is therefore necessary that the simple substance should be equipped with more figures and forms than the compound substance. Similarly in another way. The compound substance is the effect of the simple substance. Now the effect is equipped with fewer figures and forms than its cause. Therefore the compound substance is equipped with fewer figures and forms than the simple substance. Similarly in another way. If the simple substance had only a single figure and a single form, its effect would be equipped with more forms and more figures. But the effect is not equipped with more forms and figures than the cause. Therefore the simple substance has one figure only and one form only.